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Fashion of the Paleolithic/Neolithic Periods
Paleolithic peoples would have worn and worked with materials that required very little assembly, preparation and maintenance due to a comparatively low intellect, nomadism, knowledge of construction, tools and I’m sure a number of other factors. The common themes among clothes would be essential a raw, or untreated, animal hide either draped or requiring very little sewing, which would have been accomplished with a needle of sorts most likely constructed from bone or some similar type material. It isn’t until the Neolithic period where we start to see more advanced thinking with tool making, agriculture, artwork, etc. Due to the “settlement” of early peoples in the Neolithic period, they were therefore able to devote more time and attention to certain things such as clothing. From the Neolithic period we see more bone tools, primitive holes made in animal hides, probably as a means to tie or hold two ends of the animal hide around the wearer, for example.
Artist: unknown
Title: The Iceman Ötzi’s grass cape
Date: 4th millennium BC
Retrieved from: http://mr_sedivy.tripod.com/iceman.html
Comment: This is an example of a grass cape which was probably from the Neolithic period since the cape is intricate and took a certain level of intellect and time to construct. This is a part of some of the articles which were found on and around the Fineilspitze, which is a peak in the Schnalskamm group of the Ötztal Alps on the border between Tyrol, Austria, and South Tyrol, Italy. Below is a recreation of what primitive man, such as Ötzi, may have worn.
Artist: unknown
Title: The Iceman Ötzi’s apparel
Date: 4th millennium BC, about 5,300 years ago
Retrieved from: http://www.crystalinks.com/otzi.html
Comment: This is an example of what primitive man such as Ötzi may have worn. This ensemble would consist of but may not have been limited to: hay-stuffed shoes, goat- and sheepskin coat, goatskin leggings, bear fur hat, grass matting and sheepskin loincloth.
Based on archaeological evidence the Neolithic peoples can, in a variety of ways, be considered enlightened thinkers. Construction of the Thinker of Cernavoda (unknown artist, around 5,000 BC, http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture/thinker-of-cernavoda.htm) itself took some knowledge and understanding of materials, tools and dimension to create. It also required a further knowledge and understanding of people by the artist as they attempted to convey with this figurine the complexity and depth of the human psyche. Enlightened thinkers can also be characterized by their ability to think of life beyond their world. This image of the Lovers of Valdaro (unknown artist, 5000-4000 B.C., http://archive.archaeology.org/0801/abstracts/valdaro.html) explicitly and implicitly communicates the fact that this presumed couples burial, the couple’s connection, as well as their afterlife, required significant forethought. As Paleolithic peoples knowledge, experiences and subsequently their intellect grew so did the intricacy of their clothing. This can be seen in the difference of Paleolithic clothing, which ranged from nudity to animal hides punched with holes and sewn together utilizing bone needles, to Neolithic clothing where woven plant fiber textiles first appear, like the iceman Otzi’s grass cape. (unknown artist, 4,000-3,000 BC, http://mr_sedivy.tripod.com/iceman.html). As the Neolithic period comes to a close the era of the great Kings of Egypt is beginning and along with it comes significant changes in art, the after-life and of course a revolution in fashion. Clothing transforms from a basic necessity to a symbolic expression of status, gender, and cultural identity. The Egyptian pharaohs were not only set apart from the rest of the populous with their garbs but they also wore different clothing for different purposes. For example, in one ensemble worn by ancient Egyptian pharaohs (unknown artist, circa 2000 BC, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/circa-2000-bc-from-left-to-right-an-ancient-egyptian-news-photo/51241590#circa-2000-bc-from-left-to-right-an-ancient-egyptian-pharaoh-in-war-picture-id51241590) there is clear evidence of religious embellishments, purposeful, thought out complicated construction and regional symbolism which points to a elevated level of introspection and extrospection common. Early peoples’ enlightenment, basically meaning free from ignorance, is substantiated by their ability to create art, conceptualize life after death, consider a higher power, construct intricate and ornate clothing as well as the ability to create tools with which to express and immortalize these items and experiences.
During my research of Neolithic and Paleolithic peoples and costume, or textiles rather, I found out that even this far back that women were responsible for the construction of clothing. Interestingly Neolithic/Paleolithic peoples started developing tools for textile and clothing construction. They created holes in animal hides through which they would thread a string or the other side of the garment through in order to hold the garment to the body. Initially I was only finding pictures of items that were essentially draped, involving little to no construction, which led me to the belief that this was the majority of clothing during this time. Upon further research I found they Neolithic/Paleolithic constructed shoes using tool that they fashioned specifically for that job. The women also used their saliva, by chewing on plants like flax, to help breakdown and soften the grasses that they used in their outer cape as well as for padding in their shoes. This is interesting particularly seeing as how even Ancient Greeks and Romans rarely “constructed” their garments but rather draped them, although of course I’m sure it has a lot to do with climate as well. Some of the costume pieces displayed in my secondary resource are really amazing actually because they required a pretty great deal of knowledge of materials, tools, and would have also required foresight and the ability to think in 3D.
Upper and Lower Egypt
The specific beads that are often found on the beaded apron and beaded hip drape distinguish Upper Egyptian pharaohs from Lower Egyptian pharaohs. Upper Egyptian royalty typically donned the lotus flower while Lower Egyptian royalty sported the papyrus. When both style beads occur on the same apron and/or hip drape it shows the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. This is an example of an artist recreation (Patch, Diana Craig. “A “Lower Egyptian” Costume: Its Origin, Development, and Meaning.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (1995), http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/40000833?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents) of a “unified” beading pattern (ca. 1850–1775 B.C., http://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/692409). The beads beginning the strands at the top on the left are the lotus and the beads beginning the strands at the top on the right are the papyrus. There are many crowns of Ancient Egypt but probably to two most identifiable ones are those of Upper and Lower Egypt, the hedjet or white crown and the deshret the red crown, respectively. When the crowns are merged into what is known as a double crown (http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true#) this also signals a unification of Upper and Lower Egypt but separate the crowns differentiate the rulers of the two regions.
Artist: unknown
Date: Dynasty 12, late–early 13, ca. 1850–1775 B.C.
Title: Garment of Senebtisi
Link: http://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/692409
Comment: This is a beaded apron commonly worn by Egyptian royalty particularly pharaohs. Both the lotus and papyrus flower beads, which are the first beads on the very top of the strands closest to the belt, show the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt when string together and donned on the same garment. The amulet which is often present on aristocratic garb is also clearly the visible: the orange swallow or falcon.
I really learned a lot here! I found out that pharaohs were not only rulers of their kingdom but that they were also prophets of sorts that were direct “descendants” of the divine. They mostly worshipped the sun God although their preferences and favorites in this area changed. The national garb was pretty much the same between royalty and the general population but it is the accessories that distinguished them from each other. These royal garment accessories like the belt, tail hip drape and apron were not just items with which they used to claim their royal lineage, or for foreigners to discern “peasant from prince” but that they also had a sacred meaning. The papyrus flowers signified Lower Egypt while the lotus was a symbol of Upper Egypt. When both style beads occurred on the same apron and/or hip drape it showed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, which is thought to have taken place sometime around 3000 B.C. This is similar with the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. The tail is also something that is really interesting and I think another one of those distinctly royal garment pieces that does not receive a lot of attention in the light of other obvious royal garbs. The bull’s tail is thought to have originated from rituals that the Egyptians used to partake in that required the pharaoh to complete a series of tasks accurately and within a certain period of time. If the pharaoh failed, they were ritualistically killed. Although the ceremony ended and instead was replaced my ceremonial representations of this practice the bull’s tail remained a piece of the royal ceremonial costume.
Byzantium
Artist and Art Historian: Nazanin Hedayat Munroe
Original Artist: unknown
Title: Empress Theodora and Her Court
Date: ca. 547 A.D.
Source: http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/san-vitale
Comment: This is a mosaic which can be found in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna in Italy. This mosaic is a very common type of art during this period in the Byzantine Eastern Roman Empire. The date shows that it was constructed after Theodosius I established Christianity as the official religion. As the Eastern half of the arguably now fallen Roman Empire shifted in religion, art medium and style so did their clothing. Although their garbs closely resemble the himations, peplos and chitons borrowed from the Greeks by their Western Roman neighbors they are also strikingly different. The Empress and her court members all appear to be wearing a gunna, a garment which is closer fitting to the body then their outer chlamys. This is probably meant for modesty which we can see when compared to their Western neighbors whose clothing was still loose fitting, body forming, and revealing at the open outer edges and in transparency. This makes Western clothing seem rather seductive and in immodest. Is this a pattern in fashion history? With the transition to Christianity it seems that once again ensembles become more adorned and elaborate with fine threads, fibers, embellishments and other ornamentation. So we see the return of symbolism and ritual orientated garments. Power and wealth soon become images of the church. Note too that hairstyles differ dramatically from the Eastern to Western regions.
Original Artist: unknown
Title: unknown
Date: Byzantine costumes, 300-700 A.D.
Source: http://world4.eu/byzantine-costume-history-5th-century-fashion/
Comment: In these recreations we can further see the return of stoicism and rigidity removing the image of the free flowing garb, body and therefore thoughts and ideas as well. I think this fashion shift is directly related to Christianity being the official religion where strict adherence to the church will eventually become mandatory. Fashion begins to become more restrictive again like we saw with the Egyptians whose Gods and religion dominated their culture as well. I believe the gap in difference between upper class garments and every-day people garments starts to widen as well. The multiple, straight hanging layers complete with the under garment, the gunna, are characteristic of this time in the Eastern Roman Empire. In this secondary source there is still heavy Western Roman influence which we will see. Fashions changing construct can also possibly lend itself to a cognizant want/need of the church to break down and break free from the old world and Hellenistic religion. We can actually see the progression from the top left at number one which is still very Roman to the most recent depiction of Justinian II around 711.
Although this is not when sumptuary were created they were expounded upon during this time under the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Dress became more decadent probably due trade and proximity to eastern states who tend towards more elaborate dress and decorations. Eastern regions also tend to be more modest in both men’s and women’s costume and this becomes more evident here. The heavy layered costume of the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires have to do with protection from inclement weather and modesty. The church becomes really powerful during this time and therefore they were on the forefront in enacting sumptuary laws. Ecclesiastical decorations on costume become more apparent and more elaborate during this as well. I believe I read that this is when the belief began that someone’s external appearance was in direct alignment with their internal self and vice versa. With this belief then it is easy to see why, and throughout the coming centuries, clothing became so essential to society. Clothing was a way of expressing kinship to certain families particularly if those families were praised for their status and charity donations. Costume also became a way to express one’s level of religiosity through ecclesiastical adornment.
Middle Ages
Christianity, Judaism and Islam
Clothing was used as not only a way to display ones’ membership to a certain group but it was also a way for Muslims and Jews to differentiate themselves from Christians. The idea of integration and miscegenation was such a horrific concept that the condemnation of interfaith relationships and marriage was solidified by enacting of laws against such actions. One law, as part of the Fourth Lateran Council’s decree, (Calkin, Siobhain Bly. “Marking religion on the body: Saracens, categorization, and The King of Tars.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology (2005), http://prox.miracosta.edu/login?url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/AcademicJournalsDetailsPage/AcademicJournalsDetailsWindow?disableHighlighting=false&displayGroupName=Journals&currPage=&scanId=&query=&prodId=WHIC&search_within_results=&p=WHIC%3AUHIC&mode=view&catId=&limiter=&display-query=&displayGroups=&contentModules=&action=e&sortBy=&documentId=GALE%7CA406902224&windowstate=normal&activityType=&failOverType=&commentary=&source=Bookmark&u=ocea63505&jsid=7f790684dd5c2cc4fec0c80472e6613a) was enacted to prevent Christians from accidentally copulating with those who were not Christian. Although some characteristic, behavioral, aesthetic and costume differences between particular groups were evident such as the Saracens (Anonymous Artists, Saracens: Eregrinatio in Terram Sanctam | Voyage to the Holy Land, published 11 February 1486, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true#) from the Christians (Serra Jaime, Altarpiece of the Virgin (painted), Ca.1370., http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true). This is a depiction of a sacrilegious communion in which a man of Saracen, Arabian, decent is present and comingling with white Christian women. Not only does the man don a turbine but he has traditional Moroccan or Middle Eastern patterns on his surcoat. Other artist renderings display more subtle contrasts such as this piece by Hieronymus Bosch (Hieronymus Bosch, about 1490-1500, Christ Mocked (The Crowning with Thorns), http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true), which shows Christ and his persecutors. Here the differences are highlighted through symbols which are displaying on his persecutors attire. The person on the lower left sports the crescent moon of Islam and the yellow star of the Jews on his head covering.
Saracen wearing a tunic and a tortil (head covering), holding a spear and blowing a horn which emits Arabic letters. (Anonymous artist, Cy est le compost et kalendrier des Bergiers avecq leur Astrologie et aultre choses, 1500, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true)
The Middle Ages saw further widespread prejudice, discrimination and oppression of certain groups like women, people from other religions and/or other races and ethnicities. More sumptuary laws were enacted possibly as a reaction to increased trade, warfare, famine, disease and death. Increased consumption, particularly in was were seen as luxury items, or items of comfort, was correlated with immorality. Since feudalism was at its peak and people rarely traveled it was also easier to keep people under the kings/churches control. Also since literacy was at an all-time low people learned what the clergy taught them, so it was easy to believe stories like The King of Tars because they didn’t know anything else. Although discrimination, oppression and prejudice basically always existed I believe, and according to research, they also reached new heights during the Middle Ages.
I also learned that, although in continual flux, that sumptuary laws have basically almost always existed in one form or another and were usually used as a tool to control the masses, particularly women. They existed to detract attention away from wordly, otherwise considered immoral, things. This also helped to limit spending on “sumptuous” items thereby somewhat influencing the economy as far as what is bought and sold. Limiting spending on items deemed “immoral” also increased the likelihood that the money would be spent elsewhere, such as in tithes, for instance.
One of the things that was really the most revealing and surprising, although I should have suspected it, it that racism dates back to the beginning of civilization. I suppose I wasn’t too surprised by this, after all I did do research on the inclusionary and exclusionary practices of kinship, but more surprised by reasoning for such actions. This was really true when I was reading “Marking Religion on the Body: Saracens, categorization, and The King of Tars” by Calkin, when they went into the biology of interfaith and interracial copulation and the potential horrific outcomes of such actions. This coincided with the commonly held beliefs of the Middle Ages that what was worn on the outside was a direct reflection of what was to be found internally and vice versa.
Smocks in History
A smock is an undergarment that is worn between the skin and the outer garment (s) and, “over the centuries and across geographical and cultural terrain, smock, chemise, or shirt styles maintained basic similarities, while varying from excessively plain to elaborate in cut, fabric, and construction.” (Hodges, Laura F. “Reading Griselda’s Smocks in the Clerk’s Tale.” The Chaucer Review (2009), http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/pdf/25642132.pdf). It can be made from wool, hemp, linen, fine muslin, silk or a mixed textile. Wool might be a textile with which an ascetic would have their smock fashioned out of since it would represent simplicity and a lack of indulgence: usually reserved for the most pious. The poorest even among the lower class would have worn a smock constructed of hemp and this may even have been the only garment which one owned. Since modesty is desired and expected of particularly of married women, being poor seems to automatically deem someone as impure and improper. Changes of clothing, including the smock can also signal the transformation of a social decree. In Chaucer’s, The Clerk’s Tale, one such transformation in chronicled when Griselda becomes a Marchioness, marrying a man of nobility. Below are smocks throughout history based on scholars’ drawings based on primary source descriptions of the garment.
(17th Century smock, http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/pdf/25642132.pdf)
(Late 16th Century, Italian smock, http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/83861)
The smocks were a really interesting read for me. Since the majority of smocks are non existent most of them are only alluded to through texts of the day, whether it’s Egyptian smocks or smocks from the 4th century. Smocks were basically unchanged through out history minus small changes in style, length, decoration and fabric with which they are constructed. One of the cool things I learned while reading about varying smocks from different regions is that they were often used as payment instead of money. People often exchange smocks for service and even bequeathed them to family members and friends in their wills. Something else that is interesting is that the more wealthy, fashion conscious individuals may have had smocks constructed out of multiple different fabrics. The parts that were visible would have been constructed of the finer fabrics and might have even been embroidered. Other parts of the smock like the arms and the front may have been made from mediocre fabrics with the back and loin areas of the smock would have been made of the cheapest fabrics. There is evidence also that the smock may have even been deconstructed and sold in pieces or used to barter in that way as well.
Timken Museum
16th-18th century
The Portrait of a Lady in a Green Dress painted by Bartolomeo Veneto sometime between 1502-1531 shows the wide, high-waisted voluminous gown complete with contrasting colors and slashed sleeves which expose the blackwork embroidered chemise or smock underneath that are iconic of early 16th century fashion particularly with Italian attire, although This is a transition from the silhouette of the Medieval period, which favored long vertical lines. The addition of fabric in the 16th century could have been due to general economic improvements and a decrease in overall temperatures of the time. The folded over neckline, glittering gold thread which seems apparent on the yellow kirtle, a blouse worn over the smock but underneath the gown, (Bartolomeo Veneto, Portrait of a Lady in a Green Dress, 1530, http://www.timkenmuseum.org/collection/italian/portrait-lady-green-dress)as well as the pomegranate and artichoke motifs are also iconic during the early 16th century. These motifs and decorations are removed from the ecclesiastical ornamentation of periods previous. These costume details and ornamentations, as well as the human hair piece that is decorated with blue and gold ribbon pieces, separate her from other nobility of the time and certainly from those less wealthy.
Mary Villiers, Lady Herbert of Shurland, was painted by long time acquaintance and artist Anthony Van Dyck (Anthony Van Dyck, Mary Villiers, Lady Herbert of Shurland, ca. 1636, http://www.timkenmuseum.org/collection/dutchflemish/mary-villiers-lady-herbert-shurland). The elbow length sleeves stay with the general fashion of Europe during 17th century but neckline strays away from desirable fashion trends seen in other areas like France, Spain and Italy and instead the square neckline stays true to Scandic costume. The smock is not displayed as was fashionable in more “liberal” and fashion conscious France but the chest is exposed although the overall silhouette itself is highly distorted through corseting. Even though the square neckline was distinct for places like the Netherlands, however, heavily ornamented costuming were slowly replaced by solid colored satins and simple bows which the Netherlands followed. This type of “nightgown” was very popular in the Netherlands and other Scandic countries so much so that is was called the Dutch round gown. During the 17th and 18th centuries and waistlines will rise and drop often.
This is a portrait of Portrait of Marguerite de Sève, painted by the famous portraitist Nicolas de Largilliérre sometime between 1656-1746. The 17th century was met with rapid change in fashion and even greater variety between regions which influenced each other’s dress. We see a return to the long vertical bodice that was apparent in the Medieval period, contrasting the wide, high-waisted silhouette of the previous two portraits, as well as a period of brief opulence as the costs of textiles decreased even before the industrial revolution. Since Marguerite de Sève still bears a bejeweled military inspired bodice or stomacher tells me that this portrait would have most likely been commissioned more in the mid 17th century rather than later in the time period when this painting was thought to have been painted. Although her bodice appears to be constructed of metal, which it very well may have been, according to the Timken museum site, it says that it may have been silk mounted on buckram giving it the stiff sheen appearance (Nicolas de Largilliérre,
Portrait of Marguerite de Sève, Wife of Barthélemy-Jean-Claude Pupil, 1729, http://www.timkenmuseum.org/collection/french/portrait). Two differences between French fashion and fashion in other regions are apparent in this portrait: emphasis on the rounded shoulder silhouette created by a corseted body, broad neckline and dropped shoulder, a bit hidden here by her cloak, as well as the display of the chemise or smock, undergarment. The color red, velvet fabric and fur lined garments were also of high fashion during this time. These details are reflected in the portrait since the French were highly fashionable and kept up with and set fashion trends as well. Other regions, such as in Spain and Holland remained more modest throughout the century.
After visiting the Timken museum it prompted me to go home and research costume terms and regional variations. This post allowed me to really dive into costume paying special attention to the blatant differences as well and the more subtle decorative differences. I was able to see the fashion changes over time and between regions. Seeing the regional differences between paintings, costume as well as the variation from the early 16th century-mid 17th century became even more apparent after this visit. I also started to see why these divisions existed such as war, weather, marriage and simply geographical isolation. Even though people usually had many names as well and the influences regions had on each other it was still easy to discern one region from another with a trained eye.
Renaissance & Reformation
This is Eleonora di Toledo, wife of the famous Cosimo I de’ Medici (Grand Duke of Tuscany) and her son Giovanni (Agnolo Bronzino, Eleonora of Toledo with Son Giovanni, c. 1544-5, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/iv2.html?parent=true#). She was a member of one of the most famous, influential and powerful families in Italy, specifically Florence. The Medici family were also very influential and involved in the clothing economy and closely collaborated with many renown Florentine mercers, artisans, and merchants including Antonio di Ubertino Verdi (silk embroiderer), Gostanzo Gavazzeni (famous veilmaker) and Alessandro Chellini (mercer), to name a few. Almost every piece of her dress would have been constructed in Florence by artisans, mercers, merchants in collaboration with Medici family themselves, would have most likely taken anywhere from 8 months to 2 years to manufacture and would have also commonly required the expertise and skill of 20+ craftsmen and women (Currie, Elizabeth. “Fashion Networks: Consumer Demand and The Clothing Trade in Florence from The Mid-Sixteenth to Early Seventeenth Centuries.” Journal of Medieval & Early Modern Studies, (2009), Academic Search Premier. http://web.a.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=a39381f0-3f13-4204-92ac-f1223e261688%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4104). Much of the European world looked to Italy, specifically Florence, for fashion inspiration and for the export of their fine textiles, trims, garments and accessories, however, most garments being constructed were closely monitored. It is also estimated by Gregory King in other parts of Europe like England, that most people spent approximately 50% of their income on clothing (Spufford, Margaret. “The Cost of Apparel in Seventeenth-Century England, and the Accuracy of Gregory King.” The Economic History Review (2000), JSTOR Journals, http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=7907903c-e5bd-4114-b50f-046c9a18d841%40sessionmgr4007&hid=4105). Since clothing was a collaborative effort fashion was pushed by both the consumer and the retailer/manufacturer and was therefore very distinct not only between nation states and countries but also between regions and classes. Yellow began as a color for the elite and slowly trickled down to commoners and even eventually to prostitutes (Rublack, Ulinka. “The Birth of Power Dressing.” History Today, (2011), History Reference Center, http://prox.miracosta.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=58087890&site=eds-live). Embroidered, trimmed, and highly decorated dress such as seen on Eleonora di Toledo was common for the wealthy, while the general population would have worn less popular colors, possibly fashionable the season before, as well as clothing made up of fewer layers and with less ornamentation. More and more consumers began to rely on mercers and tailors for fashion inspiration and dress designs which saw the creation of workshop books that displayed drawings that often the tailors were paid to produce. The only known surviving workshop book, the Libro del Sarto, which belonged to the Milanese tailor Gian Giacomo del Conte, provides a glimpse into the world of the fashionable elite (Currie, Elizabeth. “Fashion Networks: Consumer Demand and The Clothing Trade in Florence from The Mid-Sixteenth to Early Seventeenth Centuries.” Journal of Medieval & Early Modern Studies, (2009), Academic Search Premier. http://web.a.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=a39381f0-3f13-4204-92ac-f1223e261688%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4104)
After my visit to the Timken museum, and further research, I learned even more about the connection of ethnicities and regions through marriage particularly for political gains. This was also the basis for my research in that kinship was so important that people often defied sumptuary laws and regional fashion trends in order to display loyalty to their kinship, whether that be family (as is most common), country or as a simple expression of status. I learned that, similarly to modern times, that people spent about half of their income on clothing and they that closely monitored foreign goods in order to ensure that their local merchants receive most of the local business. Control over the import of foreign goods as well as an increase in sumptuary laws were probably also to help the local economy and, again, increase loyalty and attention towards the church and other moral activities.
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