The Significance of Costume Kinship

October 17, 2016 · by · in Uncategorized

From the time ancient civilizations began to appear in the “cradle of life” they experienced an increase in interaction with each other by establishing trade and travel. Through trade and travel, societies became more integrated and intertwined causing geographical and regional lines to become blurred placing a greater importance on costume variation. Despite integration, and of course some assimilation, distinctions in regional costume have always been apparent due to the need to distinguish friend from foe, peasant from prince, young from old and one ethnic group from another. Although distinction between ethnic regions becomes vital in an ever comingled world, membership is equally as important. In societies that are dominated by the importance of kinship, costume becomes one way to express and display that membership.

Ancient societies used costume to distinguish the masses from aristocracy as well as a discernment between ethnicities. At its very basic, Egyptian attire usually consisted of a sheath style dress, for both men and women, or a kilt, for men. The royal family’s garments would have been constructed of flax or linen, while the commoners of wool or animal skin, as it was seen as less desirable and unclean. There are some occasions where members of the royal family are depicted as wearing cheetah furs but this was uncommon and was usually done to “test” taboos. Other than variation in textiles, the kilt was essentially the same garment for the elite as it was for the general population, however, the differences lie with the accessories. For Egyptian royalty, like the pharaoh, the kilt would have also most likely consisted of five other components: the belt, tail, beaded apron, beaded hip drape and the amulet: a falcon or swallow. The belt was used to attach all of the other items to, but the tail was significant. Historians and archaeologists believe that the bull tail originated in Pre-Dynastic times, making it one of the oldest known pieces of costume of Ancient Egypt. The first pharaoh of the first dynasty, Narmer or Menes, may have worn the tail as a symbol of strength and power as well as to distinguish him from his subjects (Palette of Narmer, Early Dynastic Period: I-II Dynasty, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/#3|search|1|egyptian20bull20tail|Multiple20Collection20Search|||type3D3126kw3Degyptian20bull20tail26id3Dall26name3DAll20Collections26origKW3D & Wilson). The specific beads found on the beaded apron and beaded hip drape are distinguishing characteristics between the aristocracy of Upper and Lower Egypt. Upper Egyptian royalty typically donned the lotus flower while Lower Egyptian royalty sported the papyrus. When both style beads occurred on the same apron and/or hip drape it showed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, which is thought to have taken place sometime around 3000 B.C. (Garment of Senebtisi, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, late–early 13, ca. 1850–1775 B.C., http://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/692409 & Patch). Two of the most identifiable crowns of Ancient Egypt are the hedjet, white crown of Upper Egypt, and the deshret, red crown of Lower Egypt. When the crowns merged forming the double crown (Palette of King Narmer: Reference: symbols of kingship, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/#3|search|1|Palette20of20King20Narmer3A20Reference3A20symbols20of20kingship|Multiple20Collection20Search|||type3D3126kw3DPalette20of20King20Narmer3A20Reference3A20symbols20of20kingship26id3Dall26name3DAll20Collections26origKW3D), this also signaled the unification of the two regions, but when separate the crowns differentiate the rulers of the two regions. The differences in garb between the masses and aristocracy may have been subtle but it was the accessories and ceremonial attire that displayed the most variation. The subtle differences were important because they told foreigners who the dignitaries were. Items like the hip drape and apron also let the subjects know when they were in the presence of the king or other members or the royal family. Another reason costume was utilized to set the pharaoh apart from his people is that he was believed to have a direct connection to the Gods through lineage and so his costume should be a reflection this status and position.

Costume in Ancient Greece conveyed kinship to one of the many Hellenic nation-states as well as the assemblage of Athenian women according to life stages. The most common garb in Athens since the Archaic period was the full length chiton, however, by the beginning of the 5th century Athenian men swapped the traditional costume for a much shorter, less sumptuous himation. Despite economic expansion in Athens during this time, the costume transition was due in part to Athenian values and beliefs. They believed that luxury coincided with arrogance and tyranny, as seen in eastern societies, and that moderate clothing promoted equality and like mindedness (Geddes). Athenian men may have layered the himation with a mantle or cloak during cooler weather while the Spartans did not. Regardless of inclement weather, Spartans wore a single short, cloak like garment, the tribōn, which was designed to make them tough: a desirable and necessary trait. Athenian women, for reasons similar to their male counterparts, also deviated from the chiton in favor of the peplos. Roccos states that after the Persian wars of ca. 480 BCE, the peplos could have also been revived as, “…a reaction to the eastern associations of the chiton…”, while Geddes says it could be due to the chitons connection with courtesans. Although Athenian and Spartan men may have been similar in appearance, Athenian women remained distinguishable from Spartan women and even from each other. Athenian women wore three distinct garments and accessories like the crossband, peplos with back-mantle, and the veil. The crossband was thought to have been a sign of fertility for young women of a marriageable age, a restraining device (literally or symbolically), or a status symbol borrowed from the East (Roccos). The belief that one of the purposes of the crossband being a status symbol borrowed from the east is due, in part, to Alexander’s military conquests (Fredericksmeyer). The crossband’s most significant purpose was its symbolism most commonly associated with young girls whose removal may have signaled a girl’s readiness to transition into young adulthood. At this time her costume would have changed to a peplos with a back-mantle which would have then signified her readiness to marry. Although the peplos was worn by Athenian women of all ages, the addition of the pinned back-mantle separates a young woman of marriageable age from young girl (Marble Funerary Statues of a Maiden and a Little Girl, Late Classical, ca. 320 B.C., http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/44.11.2,.3/) & Roccos). Older women would have worn the peplos with a mantle, which would have been draped over the head like a veil (Limestone Statue of a Veiled Female Votary, Late Hellenistic or Republican, 1st century B.C., http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/74.51.2456/). For older Athenian women the veil would have served a variety of purposes, one being that is was considered a form of protection, similarly to how a tortoise uses its shell. This is due, in part, to other words for veil like kredemnon which translates to “city walls” and “battlements” and due to the thought that Athenian women needed protection (Llewellyn-Jones): a stark contrast to Spartan women. The values and beliefs of both Spartans and Athenians kept them from lavishly displaying their wealth which helped them to more closely adhere to those principles while still retaining the distinct identities of their nation-states.

When marriages between people from different ethnicities are common, the display of kinship becomes an important political tool. When Emperor Charles V dominated Europe after 1520 a widespread adoption of Hispanic attire soon followed. Some saw the dress alla spagnola as fashionable, others agreed utilizing it as a display of allegiance to the empire, while many, particularly Florentines, despised the fashion of what they perceived to be invading foreigners (Cox-Rearick). Two such women who exuded pride of and allegiance to their native countries through a display of fashion are Eléonore d’Autriche, Queen of France, and Eleonora di Toledo, Duchess of Florence. When Eleonore d’Autriche became the Queen of France in 1530 through a forced marriage to François I, she chose to continue dressing in the Spanish style that included: pomegranate motifs, an emblem of Granada; the decorated chemise which was pulled out in puffs through the elaborate, detachable slashed sleeves; and a rounded bodice and papos, crimped puffs of hair over the ears (Joos van Cleve, Queen Eleonore of France, 1530, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/#3|search|1|Joos20van20Cleve2C20Queen20Eleonore20of20France|Multiple20Collection20Search|||type3D3126kw3DJoos20van20Cleve2C20Queen20Eleonore20of20France26id3Dall26name3DAll20Collections26origKW3D). Although of Flemish decent, Eléonore of France chose to adorn herself with the traditional Spanish ceremonial costume of the imperial dominions in which she was raised. This costume signaled her identity as a Habsburg princess, being the grand-daughter of Emperor Maximillian I, and allegiance to her brother, Charles V, who was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor in 1530. Even when Eléonore made a gesture to her new homeland, France, during one of her many entrées (a right of membership ceremony) by wearing à la mode françoise she wore her hair in the typical Spanish fashion and her ladies in waiting continued in their Spanish presentation. Prompted by increasing scrutiny about Eléonore’s attire from aristocrats like the King of England, Henry VIII, coupled with the discovery of her secret plans of peace with her native Spain by her husband, Eléonore’s dress made a sudden shift to French costume in 1536-7 (Léonard Limosin, Eleanor of Austria, 1536, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/#3|search|1|leonard20limosin|Multiple20Collection20Search|||type3D3126kw3Dleonard20limosin26id3Dall26name3DAll20Collections26origKW3D). Eleonora di Toledo was also forced into marrying a foreigner, Cosimo de’ Medici the Duke of Florence in 1539, for his own political gains. Her arrival in Italy was met with hostility even more so than the arrival of Eléonore of France as she was considered the “vanguard” of the change to Spanish fashion. She was also deeply resented because the outwardly display of her heritage was seen as imperial allegiance, elevating the Medici family’s status. This further solidified the Duke’s connection to Charles V, while simultaneously stripping Florentines of their national identity. The portrait of Eleonora di Toledo painted by Agnolo Bronzino in 1545 serves as an advertisement for the revival of the silk industry by Cosimo, as well as the promulgation of imperial allegiance through Spanish decoration like: “…the large pomegranate motif in gold-brocaded boucle surrounded by arabesques of black velvet [on her bodice], a pattern that is reminiscent of Moorish/Spanish decorative motifs…”, as well as the square neckline and elaborate, detachable slashed sleeves (Agnolo Bronzino, Eleonora of Toledo with Son Giovanni, c. 1544-5, http://library.artstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/library/#3|search|1|Agnolo20Bronzino2C20Eleonora20of20Toledo20with20Son20Giovanni|Multiple20Collection20Search|||type3D3126kw3DAgnolo20Bronzino2C20Eleonora20of20Toledo20with20Son20Giovanni26id3Dall26name3DAll20Collections26origKW3D & Cox-Rearick). Disdain for Eleonora of Florence continued to grow particularly in 1561 when she brought her own Spanish tailors and dressmakers to Florence due to the tightknit relationships that Florentines had with their local mercers, merchants and artisans (Currie). Nonetheless, over two decades Spanish influenced dress became a permanent aspect of Eleonora di Toledo’s persona which was the product of a profound and long-standing political alliance. Eléonore of France and Elenora of Florence viewed the expression of traditional Hispanic attire, as a means with which they could show pride of their heritage and devotion to their native country, despite resentment and often vehement disapproval from people in their new homeland.

With the increase in globalization it becomes more difficult to distinguish one group from another. Because of this, costume has been used by ancient societies, as well as more modern ones, as a method to differentiate the general population from the elite, the young from the old and one ethnic group from another. In societies that emphasize the importance of kinship, this distinction is crucial. Nevertheless, costume has become an integral and sacred form of expression that has allowed the communication of ones’ allegiance to, and pride of, their group to be read uninhibited and forthright. Costume creates a sense of community, acceptance, belonging and overall well-being thus it also goes beyond being simply a tool for segregation, but instead is deeply woven into the psyches of society itself.

References:

 

  1. Calkin, Siobhain Bly. “Marking Religion on the Body: Saracens, categorization, and The King of Tars.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology (2005), http://prox.miracosta.edu/login?url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/AcademicJournalsDetailsPage/AcademicJournalsDetailsWindow?disableHighlighting=false&displayGroupName=Journals&currPage=&scanId=&query=&prodId=WHIC&search_within_results=&p=WHIC%3AUHIC&mode=view&catId=&limiter=&display-query=&displayGroups=&contentModules=&action=e&sortBy=&documentId=GALE%7CA406902224&windowstate=normal&activityType=&failOverType=&commentary=&source=Bookmark&u=ocea63505&jsid=7f790684dd5c2cc4fec0c80472e6613a

 

  1. Cox-Rearick, Janet. “Power-Dressing at the Courts of Cosimo De’ Medici and François I: The “moda Alla Spagnola” of Spanish Consorts Eléonore D’Autriche and Eleonora Di Toledo.” Artibus Et Historiae 30.60 (2009): 39-69. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25702881?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

 

  1. Currie, Elizabeth. “Fashion Networks: Consumer Demand and The Clothing Trade in Florence from The Mid-Sixteenth to Early Seventeenth Centuries.” Journal of Medieval & Early Modern Studies 39.3 (2009): 483-509. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. http://web.a.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=a39381f0-3f13-4204-92ac-f1223e261688%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4104

 

  1. Fredricksmeyer, E. A. “Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Kausia.” Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-) 116 (1986): 215-27. Web. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/283917?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

 

  1. Geddes, A. G. “Rags and Riches: The Costume of Athenian Men in the Fifth Century.” The Classical Quarterly 37.2 (1987): 307-31. Web. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/638831?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

 

  1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd. “House and Veil in Ancient Greece.” British School at Athens Studies 15 (2007): 251-58. Web. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/40960594?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

 

  1. Patch, Diana Craig. “A “Lower Egyptian” Costume: Its Origin, Development, and Meaning.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 32 (1995): 93-116. Web. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/40000833?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

 

  1. Roccos, Linda Jones. Ancient Greek Costume: An Annotated Bibliography, 1784-2005. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2006. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 14 Oct. 2016. http://prox.miracosta.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=886288&site=eds-live&ebv=EB&ppid=pp_9
  1. Roccos, Linda Jones. “Back – Mantle and Peplos: The Special Costume of Greek Maidens in 4th – Century Funerary and Votive Reliefs.” Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 69.2 (2000): 235-65. Web. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/pdf/148445.pdf

 

  1. Wilson, Hilary. “Thereby Hangs a Tail.” Ancient Egypt Magazine 15.4 (2015): 43-47. History Reference Center. Web. 16 Oct. 2016. http://prox.miracosta.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.prox.miracosta.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=101039579&site=ehost-live